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Vedic Sanskrit grammar
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Vedic Sanskrit differs from Classical Sanskrit to an extent comparable to the difference between Homeric Greek and Classical Greek. Tiwari ([1955] 2005) lists the following principal differences between the two:
Vedic Sanskrit is a highly inflected language with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three numbers (singular, plural, dual). It has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative.
In this article nouns are divided into five declensions. The declension which a noun belongs to is determined largely by form.
The basic scheme is given in the table below — valid for almost all nouns and adjectives. However, according to the gender and the ending consonant/vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are predetermined rules of compulsory sandhi which would then give the final inflected word. The parentheses give the case-terminations for the neuter gender, the rest are for masculine and feminine gender. When two or three forms are given, the first is masculine (and neuter), but the second and third - feminine.
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -s (-m) | -āu, -ī, -ū ( -nī) | -as ( -ni) |
Vocative | -s (-) | -āu, -ī, -ū (-nī) | -as ( -ni) |
Accusative | -am (-m) | -āu, -ī, -ū (-nī) | -n, -as ( -ni) |
Instrumental | -nā, -yā | -bhyām | -bhis |
Dative | -ai | -bhyām | -bhyas |
Ablative | -as | -bhyām | -bhyas |
Genitive | -as | -aus | -nām |
Locative | -i, -ām | -aus | -su |
A-stems ([a] and [ɑː]) comprise the largest class of nouns. As a rule, nouns belonging to this class, with the uninflected stem ending in short-a ([a]), are either masculine or neuter. Nouns ending in long-ā ([ɑː]) are almost always feminine. A-stem adjectives take the masculine and neuter in short-a ([a]), and feminine in long-ā ([ɑː]) in their stems. This class is so big because it also comprises the Proto-Indo-European o-stems.
Masculine (vīra 'man, husband') | Neuter (dina 'day') | Feminine (bhāryā 'woman, wife') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | vīras | vīrāu | vīrās(as) | dinam | dinai | dināni | bhāryā | bhāryai | bhāryās |
Vocative | vīra! | vīrāu! | vīrās(as)! | dina! | dinai! | dināni! | bhāryai! | bhāryai! | bhāryās! |
Accusative | vīram | vīrāu | vīrān | dinam | dinai | dināni | bhāryām | bhāryai | bhāryās |
Instrumental | vīrainā | vīrābhyām | vīrāis | dinainā | dinābhyām | dināis | bhāryāyā | bhāryābhyām | bhāryābhis |
Dative | vīrāya(i) | vīrābhyām | vīraibhyas | dināya(i) | dinābhyām | dinaibhyas | bhāryāyāi | bhāryābhyām | bhāryābhyas |
Ablative | vīrāt | vīrābhyām | vīraibhyas | dināt | dinābhyām | dinaibhyas | bhāryāyās | bhāryābhyām | bhāryābhyas |
Genitive | vīrasya(s) | vīrayaus | vīrānām | dinasya(s) | dinayaus | dinānām | bhāryāyās | bhāryayaus | bhāryānām |
Locative | vīrai | vīrayaus | vīraiṣu | dinai | dinayaus | dinaiṣu | bhāryāyām | bhāryayaus | bhāryāsu |
Masc. (pati 'host, husband') | Neuter (vāri 'water') | Fem. (mati 'thought') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | patis | patī | patayas | vāri | vāriṇī | vārīṇi | matis | matī | matayas |
Vocative | patai! | patī! | patayas! | vāri, vārai! | vāriṇī! | vārīṇi! | matai! | matī! | matayas! |
Accusative | patim | patī | patīn | vāri | vāriṇī | vārīṇi | matim | matī | matīs |
Instrumental | patinā | patibhyām | patibhis | vāriṇā | vāribhyām | vāribhis | matyā | matibhyām | matibhis |
Dative | patayai | patibhyām | patibhyas | vāriṇai | vāribhyām | vāribhyas | matyāi | matibhyām | matibhyas |
Ablative | patais | patibhyām | patibhyas | vāriṇas | vāribhyām | vāribhyas | matyās | matibhyām | matibhyas |
Genitive | patais | patyaus | patīnām | vāriṇas | vāriṇaus | vāriṇām | matyās | matyaus | matīnām |
Locative | patāu | patyaus | patiṣu | vāriṇi | vāriṇaus | vāriṣu | matyām | matyaus | matiṣu |
Masc. (vāyu 'wind') | Neuter (madhu 'honey') | Fem. (śatru 'she-enemy') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | vāyus | vāyū | vāyavas | madhu | madhunī | madhūni | śatrus | śatrū | śatravas |
Vocative | vāyau! | vāyū! | vāyavas! | madhu! | madhunī! | madhūni! | śatrau! | śatrū! | śatravas! |
Accusative | vāyum | vāyū | vāyūn | madhu | madhunī | madhūni | śatrum | śatrū | śatrūs |
Instrumental | vāyuṇā | vāyubhyām | vāyubhis | madhunā | madhubhyām | madhubhis | śatrvā | śatrubhyām | śatrubhis |
Dative | vāyavai | vāyubhyām | vāyubhyas | madhunai | madhubhyām | madhubhyas | śatrvāi | śatrubhyām | śatrubhyas |
Ablative | vāyaus | vāyubhyām | vāyubhyas | madhunas | madhubhyām | madhubhyas | śatrvās | śatrubhyām | śatrubhyas |
Genitive | vāyaus | vāyvaus | vāyūnām | madhunas | madhunaus | madhūnām | śatrvās | śatrvaus | śatrūṇām |
Locative | vāyāu | vāyvaus | vāyuṣu | madhuni | madhunaus | madhuṣu | śatrvām | śatrvaus | śatruṣu |
Ī- and ū -stems are only feminine.
ī-stems (patnī 'hostess, wife') | ū-stems (vadhū 'bride') | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | patnī | patnyāu | patnyas | vadhūs | vadhvāu | vadhvas |
Vocative | patni! | patnyāu! | patnyas! | vadhu! | vadhvāu! | vadhvas! |
Accusative | patnīm | patnyāu | patnīs | vadhūm | vadhvāu | vadhūs |
Instrumental | patnyā | patnībhyām | patnībhis | vadhvā | vadhūbhyām | vadhūbhis |
Dative | patnyāi | patnībhyām | patnībhyas | vadhvāi | vadhūbhyām | vadhūbhyas |
Ablative | patnyās | patnībhyām | patnībhyas | vadhvās | vadhūbhyām | vadhūbhyas |
Genitive | patnyās | patnyaus | patnīnām | vadhvās | vadhvaus | vadhūnām |
Locative | patnyām | patnyaus | patnīṣu | vadhvām | vadhvaus | vadhūṣu |
See also Devi inflection, Vrkis inflection.
ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like neut. dātṛ 'giver', though also include kinship terms like masc. pitṛ 'father', naptṛ 'nephew', and fem. mātṝ 'mother', duhitṝ 'daughter' and svasṝ 'sister'.
Masculine (pitṛ 'father') | Neuter (dātṛ 'giver') | Feminine (mātṝ 'mother') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | pita | pitarāu | pitaras | dātṛ | dātṛṇī | dātṝṇi | mātā | mātārāu | mātāras |
Vocative | pítar! | pitarāu! | pitaras! | dātṛ! | dātṛṇī! | dātṝṇi! | mātār! | mātārāu! | mātāras! |
Accusative | pitaram | pitarāu | pitṝn | dātṛ | dātṛṇī | dātṝṇi | mātāram | mātārāu | mātṝs |
Instrumental | pitrā | pitṛbhyām | pitṛbhis | dātṛṇā | dātṛbhyām | dātṛbhis | mātārā | mātṝbhyām | mātṝbhis |
Dative | pitrai | pitṛbhyām | pitṛbhyas | dātṛṇai | dātṛbhyām | dātṛbhyas | mātārai | mātṝbhyām | mātṝbhyas |
Ablative | pitur, pitras | pitṛbhyām | pitṛbhyas | dātṛṇas | dātṛbhyām | dātṛbhyas | mātāras | mātṝbhyām | mātṝbhyas |
Genitive | pitur, pitras | pitraus | pitṝṇām | dātṛṇas | dātṛṇaus | dātṝṇām | mātāras | mātaraus | mātṝṇām |
Locative | pitari | pitraus | pitṛṣu | dātṛṇi | dātṛṇaus | dātṛṣu | mātārām | mātaraus | mātṝṣu |
ā-stems (jā 'prodigy') | ī-stems (strī 'woman, wife') | ū-stems (bhū 'earth') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | jās | jāu | jās | strīs | striyāu | striyas | bhūs | bhuvāu | bhuvas |
Vocative | jās! | jāu! | jās! | strīs! | striyāu! | striyas! | bhūs! | bhuvāu! | bhuvas! |
Accusative | jām | jāu | jās, jas | striyam | striyāu | striyas | bhuvam | bhuvāu | bhuvas |
Instrumental | jā | jābhyām | jābhis | striyā | strībhyām | strībhis | bhuvā | bhūbhyām | bhūbhis |
Dative | jai | jābhyām | jābhyas | striyai, striyāi | strībhyām | strībhyas | bhuvai, bhuvāi | bhūbhyām | bhūbhyas |
Ablative | jas | jābhyām | jābhyas | striyas, striyās | strībhyām | strībhyas | bhuvas, bhuvās | bhūbhyām | bhūbhyas |
Genitive | jas | jaus | jānām, jām | striyas, striyās | striyaus | striyām, strīnām | bhuvas, bhuvās | bhuvaus | bhuvām, bhūnām |
Locative | ji, jām | jaus | jāsu | striyi, striyām | striyaus | strīṣu | bhuvi, bhuvām | bhuvaus | bhūṣu |
āu-stems (nāu 'ship, boat') | au-stems (gau 'cow, bull') | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | nāus | nāvāu | nāvas | gaus | gavāu | gavas |
Vocative | nāus! | nāvāu! | nāvas! | gaus! | gavāu! | gavas! |
Accusative | nāvam | nāvāu | nāvas | gavam, gām | gavāu | gavas, gās |
Instrumental | nāvā | nāubhyām | nāubhis | gavā | gaubhyām | gaubhis |
Dative | nāvai | nāubhyām | nāubhyas | gavai | gaubhyām | gaubhyas |
Ablative | nāvas | nāubhyām | nāubhyas | gavas, gaus | gaubhyām | gaubhyas |
Genitive | nāvas | nāvaus | nāvām | gavas, gaus | gavaus | gavām |
Locative | nāvi, nāvām | nāvaus | nāuṣu | gavi, gavām | gavaus | gauṣu |
One other notable feature of the nominal system is the very common use of nominal compounds, which may be huge (10+ words) as in some modern languages such as German. Nominal compounds occur with various structures, however morphologically speaking they are essentially the same. Each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak) stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection. Some examples of nominal compounds include:
The first and second person pronouns are declined for the most part alike, having by analogy assimilated themselves with one another.
Note: Where two forms are given, the second is enclitic and an alternative form. Ablatives in singular and plural may be extended by the syllable -tas; thus mat or mattas, asmat or asmattas.
First Person | Second Person | Third Person | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | |
Nominative | aham | āvām | vayam (asmās) | tvam | yuvām | yūyam (yuṣmās) | svam |
Accusative | mām, mā | āvām, nāu | asmān, nas | tvām, tvā | yuvām, vām | yuṣmān, vas | svām, svā |
Instrumental | mayā | āvābhyām | asmābhis | tvayā | yuvābhyām | yuṣmābhis | svayā |
Dative | mahyam, mai | āvābhyām, nāu | asmabhyam (-s), nas | tubhyam, tai | yuvābhyām, vām | yuṣmabhyam (-s), vas | subhyam, sai |
Ablative | mat | āvābhyām | asmat (asmabhyas) | tvat | yuvābhyām | yuṣmat (yuṣmabhyas) | svat |
Genitive | mama, mai | āvayaus, nāu | asmākam, nas | tava, tai | yuvayaus, vām | yuṣmākam, vas | sava, sai |
Locative | mayi | āvayaus | asmāsu | tvayi | yuvayaus | yuṣmāsu | svayi |
The demonstrative ta, declined below, also functions as the third person pronoun.
Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | tas, sas | tāu | tai | tat | tai | tāni | tā, sā | tai | tās |
Accusative | tam | tāu | tān | tat | tai | tāni | tām | tai | tās |
Instrumental | taina | tābhyām | taibhis, tāis | taina | tābhyām | taibhis, tāis | tayā | tābhyām | tābhis |
Dative | tasmāi | tābhyām | taibhyas | tasmāi | tābhyām | taibhyas | tasyāi | tābhyām | tābhyas |
Ablative | tasmāt | tābhyām | taibhyas | tasmāt | tābhyām | taibhyas | tasyās | tābhyām | tābhyas |
Genitive | tasya(s) | tayaus | taiṣām | tasya(s) | tayaus | taiṣām | tasyās | tayaus | tāsām |
Locative | tasmin | tayaus | taiṣu | tasmin | tayaus | taiṣu | tasyām | tayaus | tāsu |
Interrogative pronoun ka 'what' is declined in the same way, except neuter Sg.Nom./Acc. having kim (also kam, kad) form.
The cardinal numbers from one to ten are:
The all numbers are declinable. Aika is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. D(u)vau appears only in the dual. Tri, catur and ṣaṣ are declined irregularly. The numbers from 5 to 19 do not have any difference in genders.
Three | Four | Six | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | M.N.F. | |
Nominative | trayas | trīṇi | tisrás | catvā́ ras | catvā́ ri | catasras | ṣaṭ |
Accusative | trīn | trīṇi | tisrás | catúras | catvā́ ri | catasras | ṣaṭ |
Instrumental | tribhís | tribhís | tisṛ́bhis | catúrbhis | catúrbhis | catasṛ́bhis | ṣaḍbhis |
Dative | tribhyás | tribhyás | tisṛ́bhyas | catúrbhyas | catúrbhyas | catasṛ́bhyas | ṣaḍbhyas |
Ablative | tribhyás | tribhyás | tisṛ́bhyas | catúrbhyas | catúrbhyas | catasṛ́bhyas | ṣaḍbhyas |
Genitive | triyāṇā́m | triyāṇā́m | tisṛṇā́m | caturṇā́m | caturṇā́m | catasṛṇā́m | ṣaṇṇām |
Locative | triṣú | triṣú | tisṛ́ ṣu | catúrṣu | catúrṣu | catasṛ́ ṣu | ṣaṭsu |
The numbers from 11 to 19 are:
aikādaśam, dvādaśam, trayaudaśam, caturdaśam, pañcadaśam, ṣauḍaśam, saptadaśam, aṣṭādaśam, navadaśam.
The tens from 20 to 90 are:
(d)viṃśati, triṃśat, catvāriṃśat, pañcāśat, ṣaṣṭi, saptati, aśīti, navati.
The joint numbers:
21 - aikaviṃśati, 22 - dvāviṃśati, 23 - trayauviṃśati, ..., 26 - ṣaḍviṃśati, ..., but 82 - dvāśīti, 83 - trayāśīti, 88 - aṣṭāśīti.
The hundreds are:
śatam, dvai śatai, trīṇi śatāni / tri śatam, etc.
1000 - sahasra.
The ordinal numbers from one to ten are:
Other numbers:
11. - aikādaśas, ... 20. - viṃśatitamas (viṃśas), 30. - triṃśattamas (triṃśas), 40. - catvāriṃśattamas, 50. - pañcāśattamas, 60. - ṣaṣtitamas, 70. - saptatitamas, 80. - aśītitamas, 90. - navatitamas, 100. - śatatamas, 1000. - sahasratamas.
Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs divided into in two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an a, called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication. Every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, guṇa, and vṛddhi grades. If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the guṇa-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vṛddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.
Vowel (zero) grade | a, - | i, ī | u, ū | ṛ, ṝ | ḷ |
Short diphthong (Guṇa) grade | a, ai | ai | au | ar | al |
Long diphthong (Vṛddhi) grade | ā, āi | āi | āu | ār | āl |
The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:
The present system includes the present tense, the imperfect, and the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.
For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through:
For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through:
The present system also differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:
The perfect is only used in the indicative. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.
The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
The perfect in the Sanskrit can be in form of the simple perfect and the periphrastic perfect. The only perfect is in the indicative. The simple perfect is the most common form and can be made from most of the roots. The simple perfect stem is made by reduplication and if necessary by stem lengthening. The conjugated form takes special perfect endings. The periphrastic perfect is used with causative, desiderative, denominative and roots with prosodic long anlauted vowel (except a/ā). Only few roots can form both the simple and the periphrastic perfect. These are bhṛ 'carry', uṣ 'burn', vid 'know', bhi 'to be afraid', hu 'sacrifice'.
The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. abhūs 'you were') and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with mā in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhūs 'don't be'). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – a- prefixed to the stem.
The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t 'he was'). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem. The sibilant aorist by itself has four formations:
The future system is formed with the suffixation of -sya- or -iṣya- and guṇa, both in the simple future and conditional. There exists also so called periphrastic future, which is made by adding suffix tṝ to the stem and the short as 'to be' form.
Each verb has a grammatical voice, whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an indicative, an optative and an imperative mood. Older forms of the language had a subjunctive, though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.
Conjugational endings in Vedic Sanskrit convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.
Person | Active | Middle | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
Primary | 1. | -mi | -vás | -más | -ái | -váhai | -máhai |
2. | -si | -thás | -thá | -sái | -ā́ thai, -áithai | -dhvái | |
3. | -ti | -tás | -ánti, -áti | -tái | -ā́ tai, -áitai | -ántai, -átai | |
Secondary | 1. | -am | -vá | -má | -í, -á, - ái | -váhi | -máhi |
2. | -s | -tám | -tá | -thā́ s | -ā́ thām, -áithām | -dhvám | |
3. | -t | -tā́ m | -án, -ús | -tá | -ā́ tām, -áitām | -ánta, -áta, -rán | |
Perfect | 1. | -a | -vá | -má | -ái | -váhai | -máhai |
2. | -tha | -áthus | -á | -sái | -ā́ thai, -áithai | -dhvái | |
3. | -a | -átus | -ús | -ái | -ā́ tai, -áitai | -rái | |
Imperative | 1. | -āni | -va | -ma | -āi | -vahāi | -mahāi |
2. | -dhí, -hí, – | -tám | -tá | -svá | -ā́ thām, -áithām | -dhvám | |
3. | -tu | -tā́ m | -ántu, -átu | -tā́ m | -ā́ tām, - áitām | -ántām, -átām | |
Subjunctive | 1. | -ā, -āni | -vá | -má | -āi | -váhāi | -máhāi, -máhai |
2. | -si, -s | -thás | -thá | -sāi, -sái | -ā́ithai | -dhvā́i | |
3. | -ti, -t | -tás | -(á)n | -tāi, -tái | -ā́itai | -ántai, -ánta |
Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect, imperative and subjunctive endings are used with the perfect, imperative and subjunctive respectively.
In present and imperfect indicative singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms.
In imperative accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger guṇa strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.
The Passive voice forms for all tenses and moods are made by adding -ya- to the zero-grade stem and then adding the middle voice ending of appropriate tense and mood.
The Causative is made by adding the suffix aya to the vṛddhi form. For example, karauti 'he does/makes', and kārayati 'he lets do/make'.
The Desiderative is made by reduplication of the root and the suffix sa. For example, karauti 'he does, makes', and cikīrṣati 'he wishes to do/make'. It can be also combined with causative, e.g. kārayati 'he lets do' and cikārayiṣati 'he wishes to let to do'.
The Intensive (or sometimes called Frequentative) describes a repeated or particularly intensive activity. With verbs of the movement it means "back and forth". The intensive is formed by reduplication of the root and the suffix ya with middle endings for thematic stems, and without suffix and active endings for athematic stems. For example, bhramati 'it curves around', and baṃbhramyatai 'it curves cross and crosswise around'.
The present indicative takes primary endings.
Person | Active | Middle | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | bhavāmi | bhavāvas(i) | bhavāmas(i) | bhav(ām)ai | bhavāvahai | bhavāmahai |
2. | bhavasi | bhavathas | bhavatha | bhavasai | bhavaithai | bhavadhvai |
3. | bhavati | bhavatas | bhavanti | bhavatai | bhavaitai | bhavantai |
The imperfect takes secondary endings and adds augment a- before stem.
Person | Active | Middle | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | ábhavam | ábhavāva | ábhavāma | ábhav(ām)ai | ábhavāvahi | ábhavāmahi |
2. | ábhavas | ábhavatam | ábhavata | ábhavathās | ábhavaithām | ábhavadhvam |
3. | ábhavat | ábhavatām | ábhavan | ábhavata | ábhavaitām | ábhavanta |
The aorist takes secondary endings.
Simple aorist | Benedictive / Precative | Injunctive / Prohibitive |
---|---|---|
abhū- | bhūyā- | (mā) bhū- |
The perfect takes perfect endings.
Person | Active | Middle | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | babhūva | babhūviva | babhūvima | babhūvai | babhūvivahai | babhūvimahai |
2. | babhū(vi)tha | babhūthus | babhūva | babhūsai | babhūvaithai | babhūvadhvai |
3. | babhūva | babhūtus | babhūvus | babhūvai | babhūvaitai | babhūrai |
The optative takes secondary endings. -ya- is added to the stem both in the active and the middle. In some forms the cluster ya is dropped out.
Person | Active | Middle | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | bhavaiyām | bhavai(yā)va | bhavai(yā)ma | bhavaiya(m) | bhavai(yā)vahi | bhavai(yā)mahi |
2. | bhavai(ya)s | bhavai(ya)tam | bhavai(ya)ta | bhavai(ya)thās | bhavaiyāthām | bhavai(ya)dhvam |
3. | bhavai(yā)t | bhavai(ya)tām | bhavaiyus | bhavai(ya)ta | bhavaiyātām | bhavairan |
The imperative takes imperative endings.
Person | Active | Middle | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | bhavāni, bhava | bhavāva | bhavāma | bhav(ām)āi | bhavāvahāi | bhavāmahāi |
2. | bhava(hi), bhavatāt | bhavatam | bhavata | bhavasva(m) | bhavaithām | bhavadhvam |
3. | bhavatu | bhavatām | bhavantu | bhavatām | bhavaitām | bhavantām |
The subjunctive takes subjunctive endings.
Person | Active | Middle | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | bhavā(ni) | bhavāva | bhavāma | bhav(ām)āi | bhavāvahāi | bhavāmahāi |
2. | bhavas(i) | bhavāthas | bhavātha | bhavāsāi | bhavāithai | bhavadhvāi |
3. | bhavat(i) | bhavātas | bhavān | bhavātāi | bhavāitai | bhavanta(i) |
The future takes primary endings. -iṣya- is added to the stem, both in the active and the middle/passive.
Person | Active | Middle/Passive | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | bhaviṣyāmi | bhaviṣyāva | bhaviṣyāma | bhaviṣy(ām)ai | bhaviṣyāvahai | bhaviṣyāmahai |
2. | bhaviṣyasi | bhaviṣyathas | bhaviṣyatha | bhaviṣyasai | bhaviṣyaithai | bhaviṣyadhvai |
3. | bhaviṣyati | bhaviṣyatas | bhaviṣyanti | bhaviṣyatai | bhaviṣyaitai | bhaviṣyantai |
The second or periphrastic future is made by adding suffix tṝ to the stem and the short as 'to be' form, except 3rd person, both singular and plural, having feminine ṝ-stem nominative endings, e.g., bhavi- + tā + asmi = bhavitāsmi, but bhavi- + tā/tārāu/tāras = bhavitā/bhavitārāu/bhavitāras. The passive forms are identical to the middle forms.
Person | Active | Middle/Passive | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | bhavitāsmi | bhavitāsvas | bhavitāsmas | bhavitāsmai | bhavitāsvahai | bhavitāsmahai |
2. | bhavitāsi | bhavitāsthas | bhavitāstha | bhavitāsai | bhavitāsāthai | bhavitā(sa)dhvai |
3. | bhavitā | bhavitārāu | bhavitāras | bhavitā | bhavitārāu | bhavitāras |
The conditional takes secondary endings. -iṣya- is added to the stem, both in the active and the middle/passive.
Person | Active | Middle/Passive | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | ábhaviṣyam | ábhaviṣyāva | ábhaviṣyāma | ábhaviṣy(ām)ai | ábhaviṣyāvahi | ábhaviṣyāmahi |
2. | ábhaviṣyas | ábhaviṣyatam | ábhaviṣyata | ábhaviṣyathās | ábhaviṣyaithām | ábhaviṣyadhvam |
3. | ábhaviṣyat | ábhaviṣyatām | ábhaviṣyan | ábhaviṣyata | ábhaviṣyaitām | ábhaviṣyanta |
The following stems can take all endings.
Passive | Causative | Desiderative | Intensive |
---|---|---|---|
bhūya- | bhāvaya- | bubhūṣa- | baubhavī- |
Present participle | Past participle | Future participle | Gerund | Perfect participle | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Active | Middle | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Passive | Active | Middle |
bhava(n)tas, -ī | bhavāmānas, -ā | bhūyamānas, -ā | bhūtava(n)tas, -ī | bhūtas, -ā | bhaviṣya(n)tas, -ī | bhavitavyas, -ā | bhāvyas, -ā | babhūvas, babhūṣī | babhūvānas, -ā |
Infinitive | Absolutive |
---|---|
bhūtum, bhavitum | bhūtvā, -bhūya |
The as 'to be' has the long and the short form. The long form is very rare used.
Person | Active | Middle | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Long form | Short form | Long form | Short form | |||||||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | asāmi | asāvas | asāmas | asmi | svas | smas | as(ām)ai | asāvahai | asāmahai | hai | svahai | smahai |
2. | asasi | asathas | asatha | asi | sthas | stha | asasai | asāthai | asadhvai | sai | sāthai | dhvai |
3. | asati | asatas | asanti | asti | stas | santi | asatai | asātai | asantai | stai | sātai | santai |
Person | Active | Middle | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Long form | Short form | Long form | Short form | |||||||||
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1. | āsam | asāva | āsāma | āsam | asva | āsma | āsāmai | āsāvahi | āsāmahi | āsmai | āsvahi | āsmahi |
2. | āsīs | āsatam | āsata | āsīs | āstam | āsta | āsathās | āsaihām | āsadhvam | āsthās | āsaithām | āsadhvam |
3. | āsīt | āsatām | āsan | āsīt | āstām | āsan | āsata | āsaitām | āsanta | āsta | āsaitām | āsanta |
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